Constitutional Provisions

• Article 85: Empowers the President to summon, prorogue, and dissolve (the Lok Sabha).
• Article 100(3): Quorum for either House to transact business requires 1/10 th of the total membership.
• Recess vs. Adjournment: A recess is the break between sessions, while an adjournment terminates a sitting of the House for a specified time (hours, days, or weeks) as directed by the Presiding Officer.

Parliamentary Sessions

• There are no constitutional definitions for specific session names; they are based on parliamentary conventions.

1. Budget Session (February to May):

• • The longest session of the year.
  • Begins with the President's address.
  • Comprises two parts with a recess in between to allow parliamentary committees to examine demands for grants.

2. Monsoon Session (July to September):

• • Primarily focused on passing legislation and debating national issues.

3. Winter Session (November to December):

• • The shortest session of the year.

4. Winter Session (November to December): 

• Prorogation: Terminates a session (not just a sitting). It is done by the President and differs from dissolution (which ends the life of the Lok Sabha).
• Joint Sitting (Article 108): Summoned by the President to resolve deadlocks on Ordinary Bills between the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. (Presided over by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha).
• Question Hour: The first hour of a parliamentary sitting. Includes Starred (oral answer required), Unstarred (written answer required), and Short Notice questions.
• Zero Hour: An Indian parliamentary innovation right after Question Hour (12:00 PM) where members can raise matters of urgent public importance without prior notice.
• Lame-Duck Session: The session of the outgoing Lok Sabha held after a new Lok Sabha has been elected.

• Capital: Chișinău (Kee-shee-now)
• Currency: Moldovan Leu
• Current President: Maia Sandu (First female President of Moldova)
• Current Prime Minister: Dorin Recean

Soviet History: Moldova was formerly a republic of the Soviet Union (Moldavian SSR). It officially declared independence on August 27, 1991, following the collapse of the USSR.

Landlocked Country: Moldova is a completely landlocked country located in Eastern Europe.

Bordering Nations: It shares its international borders with only two countries:

1. Romania to the West.
2. Ukraine to the North, East, and South.

Rivers: The majority of the country lies between the Prut River and the Dniester River.

Global conflict area: Transnistria, which is a Russian-backed breakaway region located on a narrow strip of land between the Dniester River and the Ukrainian border

The Uniform Civil Code (UCC) proposes replacing religion-based personal laws (governing marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption) with a single, common set of secular laws for all citizens. Its core objective is to promote gender justice, national integration, and equality before the law.

Constitutional Perspective

• Directive Principle of State Policy (DPSP): It is enshrined in Article 44 of the Indian Constitution, which states: “The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India.”
• Nature of DPSPs: As per Article 37, DPSPs are fundamental to the governance of the country but are non-justiciable (not enforceable by courts).
• Concurrent List: Personal laws (marriage, divorce, inheritance) fall under Entry 5 of the Concurrent List (List III) of the Seventh Schedule, giving both Center and States the power to legislate.

Background & Landmark Cases

• Constituent Assembly Debates: During the drafting of the Constitution, leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar advocated for the UCC as a voluntary measure, while members like K.M. Munshi and Alladi Krishnaswami Iyer supported it. It was ultimately placed in Part IV (DPSPs) due to the vast diversity and immediate post-partition sensitivities.
• Shah Bano Begum v. Union of India (1985): The Supreme Court ruled in favor of a Muslim woman's right to maintenance under Section 125 of the CrPC, explicitly observing that a UCC would help national integration and remove desperate loyalties to laws which have conflicting ideologies.
• Sarla Mudgal v. Union of India (1995): The Supreme Court highlighted the need for UCC to prevent cases of bigamy where Hindu husbands convert to Islam simply to solemnize a second marriage without divorcing their first wife.
• Danial Latifi v. Union of India (2001): The Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, balancing personal laws with the right to maintenance.

Madhya Pradesh

India's second-largest state by area

State Formation: Established on 1 November 1956. Chhattisgarh was carved out on 1 November 2000.

Capital: Bhopal (the administrative hub), with the High Court and judicial capital located in Jabalpur

• Governor: Mangubhai C. Patel
• Chief Minister: Mohan Yadav

Representation: 29 Lok Sabha seats and 11 Rajya Sabha seats

MP has the largest Scheduled Tribe (ST) population in India. The Bhil tribe is the largest group in the state

Border: Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan

Topography: Dominated by the Malwa Plateau in the west and the Bundelkhand Plateau in the north.

Mountain Ranges: The Vindhya Range (North) and Satpura Range (South) run parallel across the state.

River Systems:

• Narmada: Flows West into the Arabian Sea via a rift valley between the Vindhyas and Satpuras.
• Tapi: Flows West parallel to Narmada.
• Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son: Flow North/North-East to join the Yamuna/Ganga system.

Highest Peak: Dhupgarh (1,350 m), located in the Mahadev Hills of the Satpura Range (Pachmarhi).

Tropic of Cancer: Passes through the middle of the state, cutting across 14 districts (including Ujjain, Bhopal, Raisen, and Jabalpur).

UNESCO Sites

• Khajuraho Group of Monuments: Famous for Nagara-style temple architecture built by the Chandela dynasty (e.g., Kandariya Mahadeva).
• Sanchi Stupa: Built by Emperor Ashoka; a supreme example of Mauryan/Buddhist architecture.
• Bhimbetka Rock Shelters: Prehistoric paintings demonstrating the evolution of human habitation from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic periods.

Important Festivals: Khajuraho Dance Festival and Tansen Music Festival (Gwalior)

Tribal Population: MP has the highest Scheduled Tribe (ST) population in India. The Bhil tribe is the largest tribe in the state.

India's sole producer of Diamonds (Panna mines) and holds massive reserves of Copper (Malanjkhand) and Manganese.

• Governor: Lakshman Acharya
• Chief minister: Himanta Biswa Sarma
• Tribes: Dimasa, Karbi, Lalung, Bodo, Khampti, Rabha, Deori, Chamka
• Digboi Refinery is birth place of the Oil Industry in India.
• Dance: Bihu, Sattriya, Oja-Pali, Jhumar, Deodhani Nritya
• Festivals: Bihu, Ambubachi Mela, Dehing Festival
• Biosphere Reserves: Dibru-Saikhowa, Manas
• Wildlife Sanctuaries: Pobitora, Laokhowa, Bornadi, Garampani, Bura-Chapori, Pani Dihing, Chakrasila
• National Parks: Kaziranga National Park, Manas National Park, Orang (Rajiv Gandhi) National Park, Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park

• Capital: Dhaka
• Currency: Bangladeshi Taka
• Parliament Name: Jatiya Sangsad
• Father of the Nation: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Bangabandhu).
• Independence Day: 26 March (Gained independence from Pakistan in 1971)
• National Anthem: Amar Shonar Bangla (Written by Rabindranath Tagore).
• Current President: Mohammed Shahabuddin
• Prime Minister: Tarique Rahman

Bangladesh is known as the "Land of Rivers". It contains the world's largest delta—the Sunderbans Delta—formed by the confluence of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.

• River Name Transformations :

• • Ganga enters Bangladesh and is known as the Padma.
  • Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh and is known as the Jamuna.
  • Meghna is formed by the confluence of the Padma and Jamuna before draining into the Bay of Bengal.

Bordering Indian States: West Bengal (longest border segment), Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram

• India-Bangladesh Border name: Radcliffe Line
• India and Bangladesh share a 4,096.7 km long international border, which is the longest land border India shares with any neighbor.
• The "Zero Line": The international boundary between Tripura and Bangladesh is commonly referred to as the Zero Line.

India-Bangladesh Bilateral Relations & Treaties

Questions about transboundary infrastructure, joint military exercises, and water treaties are standard in Tier-1 and Tier-2 exams.

Water Disputes & Treaties

• Common Rivers: India and Bangladesh share 54 transboundary rivers.
• Ganga Water Treaty: Signed in 1996 to regulate water sharing at the Farakka Barrage, this landmark treaty is set to expire in December 2026, making its renegotiation a crucial current affairs topic.
• Teesta River Dispute: A highly contentious unresolved water-sharing dispute centered around the lean winter season. The Teesta River originates in Sikkim, flows through West Bengal, and enters Bangladesh.

Connectivity & Energy Infrastructure

• Akhaura-Agartala Rail Link: Connects Akhaura in Bangladesh to Agartala in Tripura, significantly boosting connectivity with Northeast India.
• Khulna-Mongla Port Rail Line: An India-backed project enhancing cargo transit.
• Maitree Super Thermal Power Plant: A 1,320 MW coal-fired power station located in Rampal, built via a joint venture between India and Bangladesh.
• India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline (IBFPL): A cross-border pipeline running from Siliguri (West Bengal) to Parbatipur (Bangladesh) to transport High-Speed Diesel (HSD).
• Trilateral Power Trade: A new cross-border framework allows Nepal to export 40 MW of hydropower to Bangladesh utilizing the Indian electricity grid.

Joint Military Exercises

• SAMPRITI: The flagship joint bilateral army exercise between India and Bangladesh.
• CORPAT / IN-BN BILAT: Joint naval coordination exercises in the Bay of Bengal.

International Groupings

• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): Established in Dhaka on December 8, 1985.
• BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation): Dhaka hosts the permanent secretariat.

• Batukeshwar Dutt (1910–1965) was a prominent Indian revolutionary and close associate of Bhagat Singh.

1. Political Association & Ideology

• HSRA: He was an active member of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), dedicated to achieving an independent, socialist India.
• Naujawan Bharat Sabha: Alongside Bhagat Singh, he was a key figure in this organization aimed at mobilizing youth and peasants.

The Central Legislative Assembly Bombing (April 8, 1929)

• The Protest: Along with Bhagat Singh, he threw non-lethal smoke bombs and pamphlets in the Central Legislative Assembly (New Delhi).
• The Cause: The act was in direct protest against the repressive Trade Disputes Bill and the Public Safety Bill.
• The Slogan: They shouted the iconic slogan "Inquilab Zindabad" (Long Live the Revolution) and did not attempt to flee, voluntarily surrendering to use the court as a propaganda platform.
• The Verdict: He and Bhagat Singh were sentenced to Transportation for Life (life imprisonment) by the sessions court in June 1929.

Prison Struggles & Later Life

• Prisoner Rights: Following his conviction, he was sent to Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands. He actively participated in prolonged hunger strikes alongside other revolutionaries to demand basic human rights for political prisoners.
• Quit India Movement: After his release, he continued his anti-colonial activities and actively participated in the Quit India Movement of 1942.

• The Spark of 1857: He was a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry of the British East India Company.
• Act of Defiance: On March 29, 1857, at Barrackpore, he revolted against using the newly introduced Enfield rifle cartridges. These were heavily rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, deeply offending both Hindu and Muslim religious sentiments.
• First Martyr: His open rebellion against British superior officers led to his arrest and subsequent execution on April 8, 1857.
• National Impact: His supreme sacrifice served as the primary catalyst that ignited the widespread Indian Rebellion of 1857, also celebrated as India's First War of Independence.
• Commemoration: In 1984, the Government of India issued a special commemorative postage stamp to honor his legacy.

• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Culture.
• Nodal Agency: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA).
• Subcomponent: It functions as an expanded sub-mission under the preexisting National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM) (est. 2003)
• Nodal Naming/Type: It is a Central Sector Scheme (100% funded by the Central Government).
• Timeline: Implemented over a 7-year period spanning from 2024 to 2031 (divided into 3 phases).
• Aligns directly with Article 51A (f) of the Indian Constitution, which makes it a Fundamental Duty of every citizen to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.

• The ongoing excavations at Vellalore began on April 1 under a state-funded initiative. It is quickly emerging as one of Tamil Nadu's most significant archaeological sites since Keezhadi.
• Global Trade Links: Archaeologists unearthed Roman copper coins. These confirm Vellalore was an important commercial hub on an ancient trade route connecting India's western and eastern coasts with Rome.
• Industrial & Household Activity: The site yielded iron tools, shell ornaments, diverse pottery, terracotta spindle whorls for weaving, hopscotch markers, and glass beads.
• Advanced Engineering: Structural elements were exposed, including ancient water channels, distinct flooring materials, stone structures, and a round pit lined with lime plaster.
• Timeline of Occupation: Experts have classified the site into three broad chronological phases:

• • Early Phase: 1st century BC to 3rd or 4th century AD (Sangam Era).
  • Medieval Phase: 8th century AD to 15th century AD (yielded the maximum volume of household remains).
  • Modern Phase: Extending up to the British colonial period.

Cultural Continuity

• Historically known as Velilur, the settlement is believed to have strong ties to the Velir chieftains who served under the Chera Empire.

• Disease Name: COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019), whereas SARS-CoV-2 is the specific virus.
• SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) is a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Coronaviridae family and Betacoronavirus genus.
• First Outbreak: Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, in December 2019.
• First Detected in India: January 30, 2020, in Thrissur, Kerala.
• Zoonotic Origin: Belongs to a group of viruses naturally hosted by bats and transmitted via intermediate animal vectors to humans.
• NIV Pune: The National Institute of Virology (NIV) in Pune is the apex body in India responsible for primary isolation, laboratory confirmation, and characterization of viral strains.

Diagnostic Technologies

• RT-PCR (Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction): The gold standard confirmatory test. Because PCR can only amplify DNA, the enzyme Reverse Transcriptase is first used to convert the viral RNA into complementary DNA.
• Ct Value (Cycle Threshold): In RT-PCR, this refers to the number of cycles required to spot the virus. Ct value is inversely proportional to viral load; a lower Ct value signifies a higher concentration of the virus in the patient.
• Rapid Antigen Test (RAT): Detects the presence of viral structural proteins (usually the N or S protein) rather than genetic material. It offers rapid results but carries a higher rate of false negatives compared to RT-PCR.

Major Bilateral & Multinational Exercises

• Exercise Garuda: A premier bilateral air exercise between the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the French Air and Space Force.
• Exercise Cope India: A major air combat drill between the IAF and the United States Air Force (USAF).
• Exercise Cobra Warrior: A multinational air exercise hosted by the United Kingdom (RAF), focusing on high-intensity tactical training.
• Exercise Desert Knight: Trilateral exercise involving the IAF, the French Air Force, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) Air Force.
• Exercise Veer Guardian: A bilateral air exercise between the IAF and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF).
• Exercise Desert Flag: A massive multinational air exercise hosted by the UAE.
• Exercise Bright Star: A major multilateral, tri-service military exercise co-hosted by Egypt and the US, heavily featuring IAF participation.

Major Domestic & Strike Exercises

• Vayu Shakti: A massive firepower demonstration and tactical air exercise conducted domestically by the IAF, typically held at the Pokhran ranges in Rajasthan.
• Gagan Shakti: A massive pan-India IAF mobilization and combat readiness exercise aimed at testing the logistical and operational endurance of the air force across northern and western frontiers.

Other Japan Open 2026 Winners

• Men's Singles: Christo Popov (France)
• Men's Doubles: Fajar Alfian & Muhammad Shohibul Fikri (Indonesia)
• Women's Doubles: Kim Hye-jeong & Kong Hee-yong (South Korea)
• Mixed Doubles: Feng Yan Zhe & Huang Dong Ping (China)

About Pusarla Venkata Sindhu (P. V. Sindhu)

• State of Origin: Born in Hyderabad, Telangana

Civilian & Sports Honors

• Arjuna Award: 2013
• Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna: 2016 (formerly Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna)
• Padma Shri: 2015
• Padma Bhushan: 2020 (India's third-highest civilian award)

Olympic Records

• Two-Time Olympic Medallist: She is the first and only Indian woman to win two individual Olympic medals.
  • 2016 Rio Olympics: Silver Medal (First Indian woman to win an Olympic silver in badminton; lost to Carolina Marín).
  • 2020 Tokyo Olympics: Bronze Medal (Defeated He Bingjiao of China).

World Championships & Major Tournaments

• World Champion (2019): First-ever Indian to win a Gold medal at the BWF World Championships held in Basel, Switzerland, by defeating Nozomi Okuhara.
• BWF World Tour Finals (2018): She is the first and only Indian to win the season-ending BWF World Tour Finals tournament.
• Commonwealth Games: Reigning single's champion from the 2022 Birmingham Commonwealth Games (Gold).

Other Recent Achivements

• BWF Council Voting Rights: In April 2026, she assumed a full voting position on the Badminton World Federation (BWF) Council.
• BWF Athletes' Commission Chair: She officially took charge as the Chair of the BWF Athletes’ Commission for the 2026–2029 term. She has been a member of this global group since 2017

• 23rd Edition: The 2026 tournament marks the 23rd edition of the FIFA Men's World Cup.
• Joint Hosts: It was jointly hosted by three nations for the first time: The United States, Canada, and Mexico.
• Format Expansion: The tournament featured an expanded format of 48 teams (up from 32) playing a record 104 matches.
• First Time Prize: For the first time in history, FIFA introduced custom championship rings for the winning squad alongside traditional gold medals.
• Rankings Milestone: This was the first World Cup final in history to feature the global No.1 (Argentina) and No.2 (Spain) ranked teams since the introduction of the official FIFA rankings.

Tournament Awards & Records

• Golden Ball (Tournament MVP): Rodri (Spain).
• Golden Glove (Best Goalkeeper): Unai Simón (Spain). He registered an all-time tournament record 7 clean sheets and set a new World Cup record of 650 consecutive minutes without conceding a goal.
• Golden Boot (Top Scorer): Kylian Mbappé (France) with 10 goals.
• Young Player of the Tournament: Pau Cubarsí (Spain).
• Oldest Winning Coach: Spain's manager Luis de la Fuente became the oldest coach to win a World Cup at 65 years and 28 days.
• Defensive Record: Spain set a tournament record by conceding only 1 goal across the entire competition—the lowest ever for a champion.
• Unbeaten Streak: Following the final, Spain extended their men's international football record to 38 matches unbeaten.
• Lionel Messi's Records: Argentina's captain became the first player to start in three World Cup finals (2014, 2022, 2026) and the oldest outfield player to play a final at 39 years and 25 days.

About FIFA

• FIFA Foundation: Founded on 21 May 1904 in Paris, France.
• Headquarters: Zurich, Switzerland.
• Current President: Gianni Infantino.
• First World Cup: Hosted and won by Uruguay in 1930.
• Most Successful Team: Brazil (5 titles).
• Next Edition (2030): Set to be centennial celebration matches across Morocco, Portugal, and Spain

• Host Country: England and Wales
• Indian ODI Captain: Shubman Gill
• England ODI Captain:Harry Brook
• Player of the Series: Joe Root (England)
• Most Runs (Overall): Joe Root (249 runs)
• Most Wickets (Overall): Sam Curran (England) – 6 wickets

Major Records

• Lord's Record Total: During the 3rd ODI, England scored 387/3, formatting the highest ODI total ever recorded at Lord's Cricket Ground.
• Opening Partnership Highlight: Ben Duckett and Jacob Bethell stitched a massive 192-run opening partnership in the 3rd ODI. This entered the record books as the 10th-highest opening partnership against India in ODI history.
• Individual Hundreds: In the high-scoring final match, Ben Duckett (141) scored a century for England, while Rohit Sharma (138) scored a century for India.