• Borders: Shares boundaries with Jammu & Kashmir to the north, Himachal Pradesh to the northeast, Haryana to the south/southeast, Rajasthan to the southwest, and an international border with Pakistan to the west.
• Rivers: Primarily the Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi. In present-day Indian Punjab, the majority of the flow belongs only to the Sutlej and the Beas.
• Soil: Alluvial soil, which is extremely fertile for agriculture.
• Capital: Chandigarh (Joint capital of Punjab and Haryana)
• Districts: A total of 23 districts (the 23rd district is Malerkotla, which was carved out of Sangrur in 2021).
• Divisions: 5 (Jalandhar, Patiala, Ferozepur, Faridkot, Rupnagar)
• Legislative Assembly: Unicameral — 117 seats
• State Animal: Blackbuck
• State Bird: Northern Goshawk
• State Tree: Sheesham (Indian Rosewood)
• State Aquatic Animal: Indus River Dolphin
• State Flower: Gladiolus
• Dances: Bhangra (for men) and Giddha (for women). Festivals: Baisakhi, Lohri, and Hola Mohalla.
• Language: Punjabi (written in the Gurmukhi script), which is the official language of the state.

• Species Diversity: A total of 135 bat species have been recorded in India.
• Endemic Species: Of these, 16 species are endemic—meaning they are found exclusively in India.
• Threatened Species: Seven species have been classified as ‘Threatened’ on the IUCN Red List.
• Data Deficiency: Approximately 35 species have not yet been assessed, or insufficient data is available regarding them, indicating a significant ‘knowledge gap.’
• Regional Distribution and Hotspots:
• Northeast India: This region is a major hub of biodiversity. Meghalaya alone is home to nearly half of India’s bat species (66 species).
• Other Regions: The Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Gangetic Plains are also critical habitats for these species.
• Major Threats and Challenges:
• Habitat Loss: Roosting sites are being destroyed due to deforestation, mining, and urbanization.
• Agriculture: The excessive use of pesticides and intensive agricultural practices pose a threat to these bats.
• Social Stigma: Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the perception of bats solely as carriers of disease has hindered conservation efforts. Administrative Barriers: The report identifies bureaucratic delays as a major impediment to research and conservation efforts.

• Scientific Name: *Cyrtodactylus jayadityai* sp. nov.
• Nomenclature: This species has been named in honor of Jayaditya Purkayastha, a renowned herpetologist from Assam.
• Publication: The study detailing this discovery was published in the *European Journal of Taxonomy* on April 14, 2026.
• Discoverers: A team of Indian researchers from Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
• Location: This lizard was found in the lowland forests of North Tripura.
• Behavior: It is primarily nocturnal, foraging for food at night and resting in burrows or rock crevices during the day.
• Genetic Variation: According to mitochondrial DNA data, it differs by approximately 4.7–5.2% from its closest relative, *Cyrtodactylus tripuraensis* (*C. tripuraensis*).
• Conservation Status: Due to its limited distribution (8–12 sq km), researchers have classified it as 'Data Deficient,' although it may potentially fall under the 'Threatened' category.
• With this discovery, the total number of *Cyrtodactylus* species in Northeast India has reached 31.
• This underscores the rich species diversity of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot.

• Mission Objective: To search for signs of ancient life by drilling beneath the Martian surface (up to a depth of 2 meters).
• Reason for the Change: Initially, this mission was proposed in collaboration with the Russian space agency (Roscosmos); however, following the war in Ukraine, the ESA severed its ties with Russia.
• NASA's Role: NASA is now assisting this mission by providing the 'launcher' (via SpaceX), 'throttleable braking engines,' and 'radioisotope heating units.'
• Landing Site: The Oxia Planum region of Mars, where ancient traces of water are likely to exist.

European Space Agency (ESA):

• Establishment: Founded in 1975 within the context of European integration.
• Headquarters: Paris, France.
• Membership: Currently comprises 23 member states. Slovenia became its newest member on January 1, 2025. Canada also participates in certain projects under a cooperation agreement.
• Objective: To promote cooperation among European nations in the fields of space research, technology, and their applications—specifically for peaceful purposes.
• Launch Center: Its primary launch base is located at the Guiana Space Centre (Kourou, French Guiana).

Mars:

• Often referred to as the "Red Planet," it is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System.
• Cause of Red Color: It appears red due to the presence of iron oxide (rust) on its surface.
• Size: It is the second-smallest planet in the Solar System (after Mercury) and is approximately half the size of Earth. Atmosphere: The atmosphere here is very thin, consisting of 95% carbon dioxide.
• Gravity: Mars' gravity is approximately 38% of Earth's.
• Moons: It has two natural satellites—Phobos and Deimos.

Major Landforms:

• Olympus Mons: The largest volcano in the Solar System, standing approximately three times taller than Mount Everest.
• Valles Marineris: The largest canyon in the Solar System.
• Day (Sol): A day on Mars lasts 24.6 hours, a duration referred to as a 'Sol'.
• Year: Mars completes one orbit around the Sun in 687 Earth days.
• Axial Tilt: Its axial tilt is 25.2 degrees (similar to Earth's 23.5 degrees), which results in seasonal changes occurring here, just as they do on Earth.

Major Mars Missions:

• Mangalyaan (MOM) – ISRO (India): India's first interplanetary mission. In 2014, India became the first country in the world to successfully reach Mars' orbit in its very first attempt.
• Perseverance – NASA (USA): Its primary objective is to search for signs of ancient life on Mars and to collect soil samples for future return to Earth. It was accompanied by the 'Ingenuity' helicopter, which performed the first controlled flight on Mars.
• Hope – UAE: Also known as the 'Amal' mission. This is the first Mars mission launched by any Arab nation, focusing primarily on studying the Martian atmosphere.
• Tianwen-1 – CNSA (China): This mission by China was historic as it successfully delivered an orbiter, a lander, and the 'Zhurong' rover to Mars in a single launch. ExoMars – ESA (Europe): This mission by the European Space Agency will send the Rosalind Franklin rover to Mars in 2028. Its primary objective is to search for signs of life by drilling up to 2 meters beneath the surface.
• Curiosity – NASA (USA): Active in Mars' 'Gale Crater' since 2012, this rover is studying the planet's climate and geology.
• InSight – NASA (USA): This was a lander mission that studied Mars' internal structure and 'Marsquakes' (this mission has now concluded).

• Unopposed Election: He was elected unanimously as no opposition candidate was fielded.
• Proposal: The proposal for his name was moved by J. P. Nadda, Leader of the House in the Rajya Sabha, and was approved by voice vote.
• Nomination as Member: His previous term ended on 9 April 2026. Thereafter, President Droupadi Murmu nominated him to the Rajya Sabha to fill the vacancy caused by the retirement of former Chief Justice Ranjan Gogoi.
• Prime Minister’s Congratulation: Prime Minister Narendra Modi congratulated him, stating that being elected for a third consecutive term reflects the deep trust of the House in him.
• Tenure: His third term as Deputy Chairman will continue till 2032.
• Harivansh Narayan Singh was first elected as Deputy Chairman in 2018 and has been serving in this role since then.

Constitutional Provisions:

• The key constitutional provisions related to the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha are given under Articles 89 to 92 of the Constitution of India.

Article 89 – Chairman and Deputy Chairman:

• Article 89(1): The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
• Article 89(2): The Rajya Sabha elects one of its members as the Deputy Chairman, and whenever the office falls vacant, the House elects another member.

Article 90 – During Absence of the Chairman:

• When the Chairman (Vice-President) is absent or the office is vacant, the Deputy Chairman performs the duties of the Chairman.
• During this period, the Deputy Chairman enjoys the same powers as the Chairman (such as maintaining order and conducting proceedings).

Article 91 – Resignation and Removal:

• The Chairman or Deputy Chairman may resign from office.
• They can be removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an effective majority as per the prescribed procedure.
• Article 92 – Tenure of Office:
• The Chairman and Deputy Chairman hold office as long as they remain members of the Rajya Sabha or until resignation/removal.
• Their salaries and allowances are determined by Parliament and are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.

• Basis for Selection: The WEF selected Jay Shah for his pivotal role in shaping the future of global cricket—specifically regarding the development of women's cricket, the management of the IPL, and the inclusion of cricket in the Los Angeles 2028 Olympics.
• What are Young Global Leaders (YGL)?: It is a global community of influential leaders under the age of 40, established by the World Economic Forum. The 2026 class comprises 118 emerging leaders from 55 countries.
• World Economic Forum (WEF): It is a non-profit organization headquartered in Switzerland (Cologny-Geneva), founded in 1971 by Klaus Schwab. It is renowned for its annual meetings held in Davos.

• Net Worth: Gautam Adani's total wealth has risen to $92.6 billion (approximately ₹7.7–₹7.8 lakh crore).
• Global Ranking: Adani is now the 19th richest person in the world, while Mukesh Ambani ranks 20th with a net worth of $90.8 billion.
• Wealth Growth: Adani's wealth has increased by approximately $8.1 billion so far this year. In contrast, Ambani's wealth has seen a decline of about $16.9 billion this year, driven by volatility in Reliance Industries shares.

• Objective: Its primary goal is to enhance the coordination capabilities of developing countries in sovereign debt management and to amplify their collective voice in global debt discussions.
• Secretariat: The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) will serve as the secretariat for this platform.
• Membership: This platform provides a dedicated space primarily for the Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of developing economies.
• Leadership: Currently, the platform is led by Egypt (Chair) and Pakistan (Vice-Chair), with other nations such as Colombia, the Maldives, and Zambia also included in its leadership.
• Debt Crisis: The total debt burden on developing countries has surpassed $31 trillion, a situation that is adversely affecting their provision of basic services, such as healthcare and education.
• Reforming Financial Architecture: The current global debt framework has largely favored the interests of creditors. This platform will assist nations of the 'Global South' in negotiating more effectively with creditors.
• South-South Cooperation: It will facilitate knowledge sharing among nations and aid in identifying practical solutions for debt management.

• Highest Annual Recognition: This marks the largest number of startups recognized in a single year since the inception of the 'Startup India' initiative in 2016.
• Annual Growth: A massive increase of 51.6% has been observed in the number of startups compared to the previous financial year (2024-25).
• Total Count: As of March 31, 2026, the total number of recognized startups in the country has crossed the 2.23 lakh mark.
• Employment Generation: These startups have generated over 23.36 lakh direct jobs to date, with employment witnessing a 36.1% growth in FY 2025-26 alone.
• Women Entrepreneurship: Approximately 48% (over 1.07 lakh) of the total recognized startups have at least one female director or partner.

Regional Performance (Leading States):

1. Maharashtra (Topping the list with over 38,660 startups)
2. Karnataka (22,600)
3. Uttar Pradesh (21,960)
4. Delhi (21,120)
5. Gujarat

• Startup India Initiative: This initiative was launched on January 16, 2016. For this reason, January 16 is celebrated annually as 'National Startup Day'.
• Recognizing Authority: Official recognition of any entity as a startup is granted by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT).

Who is considered a Startup? (DPIIT Definition):

• According to the Government of India, an entity is considered a startup only if it fulfills the following conditions:
• Duration: An entity is considered a startup for a period of up to 10 years from the date of its registration. Type: It must be registered as a Private Limited Company, Partnership Firm, or LLP.
• Turnover: Its annual turnover must not have exceeded ₹100 crore in any financial year since its inception.
• Objective: It must be working towards innovation, development, or the commercialization of products/services that lead to job creation.

Key Benefits for Startups:

• Simplified Compliance: The facility of self-certification under environmental and labor laws for a period of 3 to 5 years.
• Tax Exemption: Exemption from Income Tax for 3 consecutive years under Section 80-IAC of the Income Tax Act (for eligible startups).
• IPR Support: Up to an 80% rebate on patent filing fees and a 50% rebate on trademark filing fees.
• Funding Support: The government has established a ₹10,000 crore 'Fund of Funds' and the Startup India Seed Fund Scheme (SISFS).
• Public Procurement: Exemptions from experience and turnover criteria in government tenders.

Key Terminology:

• Unicorn: A startup whose valuation exceeds $1 billion (approximately ₹8,300 crore).
• Decacorn: A startup whose valuation exceeds $10 billion.
• Angel Investors: Wealthy individuals who invest their capital in startups during their early stages.
• India currently possesses the world's third-largest startup ecosystem, following the USA and China.
• Startups in the country are no longer confined solely to major (Tier-1) cities; in fact, approximately 50% of startups are now emerging from Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities.

• This Year's Theme: "Emergency Response for Living Heritage in the Context of Conflicts and Disasters"
• Establishment: This day was proposed in 1982 by the 'International Council on Monuments and Sites' (ICOMOS).
• Endorsement: UNESCO officially recognized it in 1983.
• Organization: It is primarily organized and promoted by ICOMOS.