• Kavach Version 4.0 is the latest and most advanced iteration of India's indigenous Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system.
• Approved by the Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO) in 2024, it is designed to meet global safety standards at Safety Integrity Level–4 (SIL-4).
• High-Speed Support: Approved for train speeds of up to 160 km/h.

• Founded: 16 April 1853 (172 years ago)
• Chairman and CEO: Satish Kumar
• History
• First Train: The first passenger train ran on April 16, 1853, between Bori Bunder (Mumbai) and Thane, covering 34 km with three locomotives: Sahib, Sultan, and Sindh.
• Nationalization: Indian Railways was nationalized in 1951.
• First Woman Railway Minister: Mamata Banerjee (2000).
• Father of Indian Railways: Lord Dalhousie, who introduced the Railway Minutes of 1853.
• Global Ranking: 4th largest network in the world (after USA, Russia, and China) and 2nd largest in Asia under single management.
• Zones & Divisions: There are 18 zones and 70 divisions
• Longest Platform: The platform at Gorakhpur Railway Station (Uttar Pradesh)
• Fastest Train: The Gatimaan Express (160 kmph) and the indigenously built Vande Bharat Express.
• Longest Route: The Vivek Express (Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari), covering 4,273 km.
• Highest Rail Bridge: The Chenab Bridge in Jammu & Kashmir, standing 359m above the river bed (35m taller than the Eiffel Tower).

• Date of Formation: 1st May 1960
• Chief Minister: Bhupendra Patel
• Governor: Acharya Devvrat
• Major Places: Rani Ki Vav, Somnath Temple, Lothal (Ahmedabad)
• Dholavira (Kutch)
• Festivals: Navratri, Kite festival, Kutch Utsav, Modhera dance festival
• Dance, Drama & Music forms: Dandiya Raas, Garba dance
• Tippani, Padhar Dance, Bhavi Folk drama, Hallisaka, Dangi Nrita
• Festivals: Navratri, Kite festival, Kutch Utsav, Modhera dance festival
• Dance, Drama & Music forms: Dandiya Raas, Garba dance
• Tippani, Padhar Dance, Bhavi Folk drama, Hallisaka, Dangi Nrita
• Islands : Khadir, Pirotan, Nora, Bhaidar, Bet/Piram Bet, Shiyal Bet, Sadhu bet
• National Parks: Gir, Vansda, Black Buck, Marine National Park
• Biosphere reserve: Great runn of Kuch biosphere reserve

• Governor: Lakshman Acharya
• Chief minister: Himanta Biswa Sarma
• Tribes: Dimasa, Karbi, Lalung, Bodo, Khampti, Rabha, Deori, Chamka
• Digboi Refinery is birth place of the Oil Industry in India.
• Dance: Bihu, Sattriya, Oja-Pali, Jhumar, Deodhani Nritya
• Festivals: Bihu, Ambubachi Mela, Dehing Festival
• Biosphere Reserves: Dibru-Saikhowa, Manas
• Wildlife Sanctuaries: Pobitora, Laokhowa, Bornadi, Garampani, Bura-Chapori, Pani Dihing, Chakrasila
• National Parks: Kaziranga National Park, Manas National Park, Orang (Rajiv Gandhi) National Park, Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park

• Establishment: Founded in May 1982.
• Status: An autonomous institution under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• It is not a statutory body; it was not created by the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
• Headquarters: Located in Chandrabani, Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
• Collaborates with the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and state forest departments to conduct the All India Tiger Estimation (National Tiger Census).

• Establishment: Transitioned from a State to a Union Territory on October 31, 2019, under the J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019.
• Capitals: Srinagar (Summer) and Jammu (Winter)
• Parliamentary Representation: 5 seats in Lok Sabha and 4 seats in Rajya Sabha
• Famous Lakes: Wular Lake (Largest freshwater lake in India) and Dal Lake.
• National Parks: Dachigam NP (Famous for the Hangul) and Kishtwar NP
• Lieutenant Governor: Manoj Sinha
• Chenab Bridge: The world's highest railway bridge.
• Atal Setu: Strategic bridge over the Ravi river in Kathua.

• Statehood: Formed on December 1, 1963, as the 16th state of India.
• Falcon Capital: Known as the "Falcon Capital of the World" due to the massive annual migration of Amur Falcons.
• Rivers: Major rivers include the Dhansiri, Doyang, Dikhu, and Tizu
• Highest Peak: Mount Saramati (3,840 m), located in the Naga Hills bordering Myanmar.
• Protected Areas: Intanki National Park and Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Capital: Kohima
• Governor: Ajay Kumar Bhalla (additional charge)
• Chief Minister: Neiphiu Rio

• Strategic Sectors: Cooperation will be deepened in trade, investment, and energy, with a particular focus on re-establishing Venezuela as a major oil supplier to India.
• Technology & Innovation: The agreement covers digital technology, science, and the automotive sector.
• Public Welfare: Both nations committed to expanding ties in health (including pharmaceuticals), agriculture, and people-to-people exchanges.
• Economic Diversification: Discussions also highlighted potential growth in mining and tourism.
• Global South Cooperation: Both leaders underscored the importance of their collaboration in multilateral forums to advance the interests of the Global South.

Venezuela

• Capital: Caracas
• President: Nicolás Maduro
• Vice President: Delcy Rodríguez
• Currency: Venezuelan Bolívar (VES)
• Government Type: Federal Presidential Republic
• Parliament: Unicameral Legislature – National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional)
• Major Rivers: Orinoco River, Apure,Caroní, Meta
• Major Lakes: Lake Maracaibo (largest lake in South America; major oil region), Lake Valencia
• Major Mountains: Andes Mountains (Mérida Range), Pico Bolívar (Highest peak of Venezuela ~4,978 m)
• Major Grasslands: Llanos
• Bordering Nations: Colombia (West), Brazil (South), Guyana (East)
• World’s largest proven oil reserves
• Located in Northern South America
• Located in Northern South America

• Capital: Abu Dhabi
• Currency: UAE Dirham (AED)
• Prime minister: Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum
• Memberships: UN, Arab League, GCC (founding member), OPEC, BRICS (joined 2024), and I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE, USA).
• Sharjah: Known as the "Cultural Capital of the Arab World"
• Dubai: Commercial and financial center; home to the Burj Khalifa (tallest building at 828m)
• Headquarters: The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is headquartered in Masdar City, Abu Dhabi.
• Borders: Saudi Arabia (South & West) and Oman (East & Northeast)
• Terrain: Primarily flat coastal plains and sand dunes (Rub' al Khali or "Empty Quarter" in the south), with the Hajar Mountains in the east.

• The Moscow meeting occurred amid the 55th anniversary of diplomatic relations between the UAE and Russia.
• Economic Cooperation: Discussions at the Kremlin also focused on the UAE-Russia strategic partnership, covering trade, investment, energy, and space technology. Bilateral trade turnover reportedly reached over $11 billion in 2025.

• India-Arab Foreign Ministers' Meeting (IAFMM) is a critical high-level institutional mechanism.
• Origin: Formalised in March 2002 through an MoU between India and the League of Arab States to institutionalise dialogue.
• Arab-India Cooperation Forum: Established in December 2008 and revised in 2013 to include biennial Ministerial and annual Senior Official meetings.
• Observer Status: India holds Observer Status in the League of Arab States, a pan-Arab body headquartered in Cairo, Egypt.
• Permanent Representative: The Indian Ambassador in Cairo was designated as India's Permanent Representative to the LAS in December 2010.

• Established: January 1992.
• Act: National Commission for Women Act, 1990 (passed on Aug 30, 1990).
• Status: Statutory Body (Not a Constitutional body).
• Ministry: Functions under the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
• Headquarters: New Delhi.
• First Chairperson: Jayanti Patnaik (1992–1995)
• Current Chairperson: Ms. Vijaya K. Rahatkar

• Establishment: July 1, 1949, under the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949.
• Headquarters: New Delhi.
• Administrative Control: Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Government of India.
• Council Structure: Managed by a Council of 40 members—32 elected by members and 8 nominated by the Central Government (representing CAG, SEBI, Ministry of Finance, etc.).

• Established: 1973 (registered under Companies Act 1956), and holds Maharatna status.
• Headquarters: New Delhi
• Nodal Ministry: Under the administrative control of the Ministry of Steel, Government of India.
• Current Chairman and Managing Director (CMD): Amarendu Prakash

• Founder: Guru Nanak Dev (1469–1539).
• Core Philosophy: Monotheism (belief in one God – Ek Onkar).
• Tenets: Rejection of the caste system, idolatry, and asceticism; emphasis on equality, selfless service (seva), and honest living.
• Scripture: Adi Granth (compiled by Guru Arjan Dev), later designated as Guru Granth Sahib by Guru Gobind Singh.

The Ten Sikh Gurus (1469–1708)

• Guru Nanak Dev (1st): Founded the faith, started Langar (common kitchen).
• Guru Angad Dev (2nd): Introduced Gurmukhi script.
• Guru Amardas (3rd): Introduced Anand Karaj (marriage ceremony).
• Guru Ram Das (4th): Founded the city of Amritsar.
• Guru Arjan Dev (5th): Compiled the Adi Granth, completed Amritsar, martyred by Jahangir.
• Guru Har Gobind (6th): Transformed Sikhs into a martial community ("Soldier-Saint"), built Akal Takht.
• Guru Har Rai (7th): Maintained the armed warriors.
• Guru Har Krishan (8th): Youngest Guru.
• Guru Tegh Bahadur (9th): Martyred by Aurangzeb, founded Anandpur.
• Guru Gobind Singh (10th): Created the Khalsa Panth (1699), introduced the 5 Ks, and declared the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal Guru.

• Theme States: Uttar Pradesh and Meghalaya
• Partner Nation: Egypt
• Central Theme: "Local to Global – Aatmanirbhar Bharat," aimed at providing local artisans an international platform.

• Adoption Date: February 2, 1971.
• Location: Ramsar, Iran (on the Caspian Sea).
• Name: The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat.
• Entry into Force: December 21, 1975.
• Headquarters: Gland, Switzerland (shared with IUCN).
• Goal: Conservation and "wise use" of all wetlands.
• World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd annually.
• Definition of Wetlands: Covers marshes, fens, peatlands, rivers, lakes, mangroves, coral reefs, and man-made wetlands (fish ponds, reservoirs, salt pans).
• Not a UN Convention: It is an independent intergovernmental treaty.

The Montreux Record

• The Montreux Record lists Ramsar sites undergoing ecological changes due to human factors. Indian sites on the record are Keoladeo National Park and Loktak Lake. Chilika Lake was removed after restoration.
• India became a party to the convention on February 1, 1982.
• Tamil Nadu has the most sites with 20, while Sundarbans is the largest and Renuka Lake is the smallest.

• Establishment: Founded on 1 January 1966.
• Parent Body: One of the 37 constituent laboratories under the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR).
• Ministry: Falls under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India.
• Headquarters: Dona Paula, Goa.
• Regional Centres: Located in Mumbai, Kochi, and Visakhapatnam.
• Current Director: Prof. Sunil Kumar Singh.
• Founder Director: Dr. N.K. Panikkar.